Writer: Khushi Vaid (Delhi, India)

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Unified Silla

The Unified Silla Kingdom (668–935) was the first dynasty to rule the entire Korean peninsula. Silla used the assistance of the Chinese T’ang Dynasty to finally defeat its rivals and form a unified Korean state after centuries of battles with the other states of the Three Kingdoms Period (57 BCE – 668 CE). The kingdom flourished in the following century, producing some of the finest art and architecture ever seen in ancient Korea. Silla fell to the resurgent northern kingdom, now known as Goryeo, in the 10th century CE, and ruled until 1392 CE. From the 1st century BCE to the late 7th century CE, Korea was ruled by four political entities: the Kingdoms of Baekje, Goguryeo, and Silla, as well as the Gaya confederation. China took an active interest in the region at various times, particularly during the Han, Sui, and Tang dynasties. 

The Silla kingdom was able to defeat its long-standing rivals in the 660s CE, owing to military assistance from the T’angs, who were eager to see these troublesome southern kingdoms weaken themselves fighting against each other. The T’angs remained a dangerous player in Korean affairs, but while they were preoccupied with a rising Tibet, Silla armies defeated the Chinese forces that remained in Korea in the battles of Maesosong (675 CE) and Kibolpo (675 CE-676 CE). 

To distinguish itself from its smaller predecessor, the Silla Kingdom (Ko-Silla – ‘Old Silla,’ the new state was known as the Unified Silla Kingdom (Tong-il Silla). It controlled all of Korea as far north as the Daedong River. Their immediate northern neighbour was the hostile Balhae kingdom in Manchuria, which had been formed by exiles from the old Goguryeo kingdom and semi-nomadic Malgal.

_{Picture credits: Wikipedia}

The Appearance of Powerful Aristocracies

The Kim clan now dominated the Silla kings, with only a handful of kings descended from other aristocratic families. To help unify the country, ruling aristocrats from the fallen kingdoms were forcibly relocated to areas where they were less likely to incite rebellion, but were given the same status as their Silla counterparts. 

To ensure loyalty, certain members of these aristocratic families were required to present themselves on a regular basis at Geumseong (also known as Seorabol at that time and Gyeongju today), the capital city. 

The state was now divided into nine provinces (three in each of the three old kingdoms) and five secondary capitals. Each province (chu) was led by a general commandant administrator known as a chonggwan. In the ninth century CE, the title was changed to todok (governor). Each province had 117 prefectures (kun), which were further divided into 293 counties (hyon), each of which was made up of various villages and hamlets (chon) and specially created settlements for undesirable people (hyang, so, and pugok). Every level had its own chief administrator, who was overseen regularly by a government inspector or oesajong. Another measure to ensure local loyalty was to compel village chiefs to send their eldest sons to work in the capital administration or military, a practise known as compulsion (sangsuri).

During this time, Gyeongju flourished even more. The Samguk yusa collection of texts describes it as having 35 palaces, 55 streets, 1360 districts, and 178,936 houses. This would allow for a population of approximately 900,000 people. One palace was built on the shore of an artificial lake, while another had watercourses running through it so that guests could be served floating wine cups. There were even palaces and gardens with exotic flora and fauna for each of the four seasons.

_{Picture credits: Korean Culture Centre UK}

The Visual Arts of the Unified Silla Period 

The massive Bulguksa (Temple of the Buddha Land), which rose from the Lotus lake, was built and expanded. The larger kingdom prospered as a result of a thriving agricultural industry, which was made more productive through extensive irrigation projects and trade across the East China Sea. Because of the prolonged absence of war, the arts and sciences flourished like never before. Particular areas of excellence included architecture, sculpture, metalwork, mathematics, and astronomy. History became a popular subject, and advancements in woodblock printing were made during this period.

Metalwork remained a fine Silla art form, as evidenced by the gold crowns found in various tombs, but the Unified Period also saw the development of a new art form, that of making large bronze-cast bells (pomjong), which were used in Buddhist temples to announce services. The largest is from Bongdeoksa, also known as the Emille Bell, and was cast in 771 CE to honour King Seongdeok. The bell, which weighs nearly 19 tonnes, is now on display at the Gyeongju National Museum. Buddhism has a strong influence on Unified Silla pottery. Cremation necessitated the creation of urns for ashes, and Buddhist motifs such as lotus flowers and clouds predominate in stamped decoration, often with lotus buds for lid handles.

_{Picture credits: Britannica}

The Rising of the Provincial Lords

The state began a slow decline beginning in the eighth century CE, owing largely to the rigidity of its class structure. This was based on the bone rank system, a strict social classification of entitlements and obligations dictated by one’s birth that continued to operate as in the old Silla kingdom and completely dominated the aristocracy and state administration. Not only did the lack of opportunity to rise above one’s birth class lead to a stagnation of ideas and innovations, but the aristocracy began to resent the king’s power as well. The peasantry, on the other hand, grew increasingly resentful of the constant taxes levied on them. The state was collapsing from within.

The Silla kings would be particularly troubled by two individuals. In 892 CE, a peasant leader named Gyeon-hwon took advantage of political unrest to resurrect the old Baekje kingdom in the peninsula’s southwest corner. Meanwhile, in 901 CE, Gung Ye, an aristocratic-Buddhist monk leader, declared a new Goguryeo state in the north known as Later Goguryeo. There was then another messy power struggle for control of the peninsula, similar to the Three Kingdoms period. In 927 CE, Gyeon Hwon attacked Gyeongju, while Gung Ye’s unpopular and fanatical tyranny resulted in his death at the hands of his own people.

In 918 CE, he was succeeded by his first minister, the capable Wang Geon (also known as the Taejo of Goryeo), who attacked Later Baekje, which was now plagued by leadership infighting, and then Silla. Gyeongsun, the last Silla king, surrendered in 935 CE, leaving Wang Geon to reunify the country under a new name, the Goryeo Dynasty, which ruled Korea from 918 CE to 1392 CE. 

_{Picture credits: Wikipedia}

This is a brief history of the Unified Silla kingdom. Let us know in the comments if you enjoyed reading about the historical background of the Korean Peninsula and if you’d like to learn more historical facts.